In 'One Piece,' Luffy Aims to Be Pirate King—Were There Really Pirates in Taiwan? 400 Years Ago, the Taiwan Strait Was Even More Chaotic Than the Manga

In 'One Piece,' Luffy sets off from the East Blue, leading the Straw Hat Pirates across the Grand Line with the goal of finding 'ONE PIECE' and becoming the Pirate King. The manga's maritime world features pirates, navy forces, and various factions competing for routes, territory, and profit.

But if we rewind 400 years and shift the setting from the Grand Line to the Taiwan Strait, we discover that this sea was once home to groups officially labeled as 'pirates,' 'sea raiders,' or even 'Wokou.' And these figures were far harder to categorize than their manga counterparts.

Some plundered ships, others engaged in cross-sea trade; some ran smuggling operations banned by authorities, while others commanded their own armed fleets. Some were initially seen as maritime threats by the imperial court, only to be later pardoned and absorbed into official ranks.

Around the 17th century, the waters around Taiwan saw activity from Ming imperial forces, Fujianese merchants, Japanese traders, the Dutch East India Company, Spanish forces, and various armed maritime groups. If the world of 'One Piece' is defined by the rivalry between pirates, navy, and competing powers, then 400 years ago, the Taiwan Strait was similarly a sea where commerce, military power, and political interests intensely intersected.

Were there really 'pirates' in Taiwan? Yes—but they were not quite like those in 'One Piece.'

Today, when people hear 'pirate,' they often picture groups that attack ships at sea to steal cargo. But the maritime situation in East Asia during the 16th and 17th centuries was far more complex.

Many who traveled between China’s southeastern coast, Japan, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia held multiple identities—as merchants, smugglers, and members of armed groups. Historian Xing Hang, in studying the Zheng family's maritime power, described some of these groups as 'smuggler-pirates.' Figures like Zheng Zhilong are often referred to by researchers as 'armed merchants.'

In other words, they weren’t constantly raiding ships. When legitimate trade was possible, they acted as merchants; when blocked by official restrictions, trade turned into smuggling; and when commercial competition escalated into conflict, the weapons on their ships were readily deployed.

So in modern terms, rather than labeling everyone simply as 'pirates,' some of these groups were more accurately 'maritime organizations' with their own fleets, commercial networks, and military force.

Why did so many maritime powers gather around Taiwan? The Ming dynasty’s maritime bans were a key factor.

Why did these armed merchants gradually grow stronger?

One major background was the Ming dynasty’s long-standing restrictions on private overseas trade. From the early Ming period, the court strictly limited private citizens from engaging in overseas trade. Although in 1567 the Ming partially lifted the maritime ban, allowing merchants from places like Haicheng in Fujian to legally trade with certain overseas regions, direct trade with Japan remained restricted, and government control over maritime activities never fully disappeared.

On the other hand, market demand didn’t vanish due to government bans. Japan needed Chinese silk and porcelain, while Chinese and Southeast Asian merchants sought Japanese silver. To the south, Macau, Manila, and Southeast Asian ports formed a vast transnational trade network.

Thus, by the 16th and 17th centuries, East Asian waters developed a unique state where legal trade, smuggling, and armed activities coexisted. Taiwan, situated between the southeastern Chinese coast, Japan, and Southeast Asia, gradually became a key node in this maritime network.

Even before the Dutch arrived, armed maritime groups used Taiwan’s coasts to evade officials.

Scholar Weng Jiayin from the Institute of Taiwan History at Academia Sinica found that in the 16th and 17th centuries, some Chinese southeastern coastal merchants or armed maritime groups, when pursued by Ming imperial forces, used areas like Wangang, Tayouan, and Peikang along Taiwan’s coast.

The reason was practical. At that time, Taiwan’s southwestern coast had sandbars, lagoons, and complex waterways, making it risky for large official ships to enter without local knowledge.

In 1563, the famous maritime leader Lin Daoqian, pursued by Ming general Yu Dayou, fled to the Penghu area and then entered the region known as 'Peikang.' Due to shallow waters and complex channels, the pursuing forces did not follow.

Later, another prominent maritime figure, Lin Feng, also operated around Taiwan.

This shows that even before the Dutch East India Company formally entered Taiwan, the island was not isolated from the outside world. Fishermen, merchants, smugglers, and armed fleets could all appear in waters near Taiwan.

Was 'Wokou' always Japanese? Chinese merchants were also involved.

Another term easily misunderstood today is 'Wokou.' Seeing the character '倭' (Wa), many assume all Wokou were Japanese pirates.

But historical reality is more complex. Weng Jiayin points out that some Ming Chinese documents also categorized Han Chinese who violated official rules and engaged in overseas smuggling as 'Wokou.'

Thus, the 'Wokou' mentioned in historical records weren’t necessarily all from Japan—some may have been Chinese sea merchants and armed figures from Fujian and Guangdong.

This is why applying today’s clear-cut nationality concepts to East Asian waters 400 years ago often leads to distortion. At that time, a single fleet might travel between Fujian, Japan, Macau, Manila, and Taiwan; crew members might work for different merchants and serve as translators, traders, armed escorts, or smugglers.

Rather than 'which country is he from?', the more important questions back then were: 'Whose fleet does he obey? Who does he trade for? Where is the cargo headed?'

If you’re looking for a maritime overlord before Zheng Zhilong, Li Dan is an unavoidable figure.

Before Zheng Zhilong rose to prominence, another figure dominated the early 17th-century East Asian maritime world—one less known today: Li Dan.

Historian Xing Hang’s research indicates that Li Dan built a powerful trans-sea trade and smuggling network, influential along the route from China to Japan, with activities extending into the Taiwan Strait.

In other words, he wasn’t just an ordinary pirate with a few small boats raiding ships, but a key maritime leader who controlled commerce, networks, and shipping lanes.

By the 1620s, the Dutch East India Company also sought to open the Chinese market. In 1622, the Dutch occupied Penghu; in 1624, under pressure from the Ming, they moved to Tayouan in Taiwan to establish a base.

Historical records related to 'Tainan 400' indicate that Li Dan mediated the Dutch move from Penghu to Taiwan, and the young Zheng Zhilong, then under his command, was sent to Penghu and served as an interpreter for the Dutch.

If we force this into the narrative style of 'One Piece,' Li Dan would be like a 'previous-generation maritime big shot' who already controlled key routes and connections before the main character appeared.

Later, it was Zheng Zhilong who truly expanded maritime power.

Zheng Chenggong’s father, Zheng Zhilong, was a powerful armed merchant in his early years.

Many in Taiwan know Zheng Chenggong, but fewer know that his father Zheng Zhilong had an incredibly dramatic early life.

Zheng Zhilong, in his youth, operated within trade networks in Macau, Japan, and across East Asia, gradually building his own fleet and armed forces. Academic research often describes his group as 'armed merchants.'

By the late 1620s, Zheng Zhilong’s armed fleet rapidly expanded, becoming an undeniable maritime force along China’s southeastern coast.

But even more dramatically, in 1628, Zheng Zhilong accepted the Ming’s offer of amnesty.

A man once seen as a maritime threat to the court officially entered the imperial system and later helped the Ming manage coastal defense and deal with other armed maritime groups.

Zheng Zhilong’s commercial influence continued to grow, with trade networks linking China’s coast, Japan, Taiwan, Luzon, Macau, and Southeast Asia.

In other words, maritime identities 400 years ago were not fixed. One day you might be a fugitive pursued by the court; the next, after accepting amnesty, you could become part of the official establishment.

Was Yan Siqi also Taiwan’s 'Pirate King'? This story has historical debate.

Another figure often mentioned in early Taiwan maritime history is Yan Siqi.

Traditional local histories often claim that in 1621, Yan Siqi led a group—including Zheng Zhilong—from Japan to Taiwan, established a base in the Beigang area, and recruited Han Chinese for land reclamation.

This narrative is widely circulated, and some local government historical introductions still present it today.

However, academic research has not reached a consensus on this history. Research from the Graduate Institute of Taiwan History at National Chengchi University points out that historical records about Li Dan and Yan Siqi have long been inconsistent; Yan Siqi’s identity, timeline, and relationship with figures like Li Dan remain open to discussion.

How complex was the Taiwan Strait 400 years ago? The Dutch and Spanish joined the competition.

What truly made the waters around Taiwan even more complex was the 1620s.

In 1624, the Dutch East India Company entered southern Taiwan and established a base in Tayouan. In 1626, the Spanish moved north from Luzon and established bases in northern Taiwan, including Keelung. It wasn’t until 1642 that the Dutch expelled the Spanish from Taiwan.

This meant that in the first half of the 17th century, the waters around Taiwan simultaneously hosted: Ming imperial forces, Fujianese sea merchants, Japanese traders, the Dutch East India Company, Spanish colonial forces, and various maritime armed groups not fully under state control.

And these groups didn’t always have just 'enemy' or 'ally' relationships.